How stone masonry I done

Know the difference between a
stonemason and other related
trades. A stonemason is completely
different from a brick layer, block
layer, tile setter, and a
"phonystonemason"; "phonystone"
is exactly what its name implies it
to be - a phony or a fake. Phony
brickwork will mostly consist of
concrete and a fake thin film that's
completely worthless and will flake
off in a matter of 15 years or
slightly longer. Stonemasons
actually work with real stone.
Learn how to do wallrock. Wallrock
is the type of work stonemasons
do the most. Separate the two
words "wall" and "rock", meaning
you're putting rock together with
"mortar" in order to make a wall.
Construct a cutting operation .
Usually this is done with two
scaffolds and an X-brace and
about three planks. Two should be
at about hip level and one at the
top of the scaffold, so that you can
put a bucket full of water up top.
This is so that you can create a
syphon for your wetsaw, should
you need it. It's usually safe to
assume you'll need it every day.
Get your tools and plug them in
and place them where you'll need
them . Sometimes you won't need
all your tools but take out the
ones that you'll need with that
specific job. If you don't know
which tools you'll need, take all of
them.
Consider where your cement is
going to be coming from . If it's not
smart for you to have a
wheelbarrow full of cement, get a
mud board. A MUD BOARD can
usually be found on every job site.
It's just any flat board that you wet
down and place cement on.
Get a good amount of stone and
adorn it all around your cutting
operation. You want a good
selection to work with, but don't
take all the good stones if you
have other stonemasons on the job
that could use some. Just use
those really good ones you might
need and leave it at that.
Before you mix any cement, look at
your wall and think about what you
might need . If it's a pillar or
something that has a corner, then
you're going to have to string a
line or a series of lines. This
means you'll need a tightly strung
string that is strung from above
where you're working and all the
way down to the bottom at a
specific measurement. So suppose
you're wrapping your stone around
a pillar and your distance is two
and a half inches away from the
wall; cut a 2x4 at about a six inch
length. Then get some particle
board and cut it in a long strip.
Drill the six inch long 2x4 to the
particle board with two screws so
that the tension in the line doesn't
cause the 2x4 to pivot. Drill the
particle board to the wall. Measure
from the two walls two and a half
inches and make those
measurement marks on the 2x4.
Extend those marks with a square
to the point to where the
measurement marks intersect. Drill
a screw into that intersection
point, but don't drill it 100% into
the wood. Leave some of the screw
out a little ways. Now, tie a stiff
and durable string to that screw
you just drilled. Make sure that the
string reaches all the way to the
bottom with a little extra
remaining.
Dig all the way down to the
foundation or footing of the
structure you're going to be
working on. If there's not enough
of a footing, then you'll have to dig
about a foot deep and pile in some
stiff cement into that hole in order
to make your own footing.
Lay your first stone at the corner .
Make sure it's at two and a half
inches out on both ends of both
walls. You can do this with a
square and a measuring tape to
make sure the edge of your stone
is at the proper measurement.
When working with corners, you'll
usually need a natural edge or a
chiseled edge. Make sure not to
leave a saw cut edge on the rock,
unless you're told to do that by
your employer... but you're not
likely ever to encounter that
situation.
Get another screw and tie it to the
bottom end of your string . Make
sure it's tight enough so that when
you tuck it underneath your first
cornerstone you'll have tension on
the line, but it won't lift your stone
up off the ground because the
cement is still wet. If this is the
first time you're doing this, you'll
get frustrated with this process.
You'll learn how to do it right in
time.
Try to make sure that the line isn't
off. Measure, measure, measure,
re-measure, and measure again.
When working with corners, this is
the most vital thing. If it's off, then
you might have to tear out two to
three days of work - if not more -
which obviously sucks if you're
paid by the square footage and
sucks even more when you're being
paid the the hour because then
you're in danger of losing your job
for pay that wasn't delivered to
your employer. So make sure you
measure as much of everything
that seems important and even
some of the things you'd usually
not consider. Just measure,
measure, and measure some more.
It's hard to get to the point to
where you're measuring too much.
Keep your joints as tight as can be.
Sometimes this means you need to
undercut some of your stone and
not just cut straight down on your
rock. Don't undercut at a too
dramatic angle but just enough to
fit your stones nice and snugly
together without having one
overlap the other. Make sure every
stone is flush - unless your
employer wants a Rustic look. (The
way to tell if you're a good
stonemason is to see if you're
organized and that your work
meets customers expectations.)
Be aware that there are going to be
points in time when you're working
with rather tight fits and difficult
cuts. For example, you'll be picking
up this big heavy stone and
moving it around and making
marks on the stone and cutting it
a little bit, then repeating this
process in order to finally lay the
stone. The more you play with a
stone, the more likely it's going to
break. So you can either work with
lots and lots of small rock, or you
can use a template. This is a trick
of the trade!
Buy some wire that's not tie
wire. (Tie wire is too stiff, you
need some wire that you can
move and shape easily; usually
this means having a thinner
caliber of wire. However, if it's
too thin it won't hold its shape
and it'll sag and waste your
time.) Find a brand of wire that
you're comfortable with.
Get a good length of wire, cut it,
then wrap the two ends
together. You should have a
circular-looking type of wire.
Put it in those difficult to cut
places and shape it to the
shape the outer portions the
shone should be. Shape it so
that it's not touching any of the
already laid stones. Spend an
extra minute or two just to make
sure it's right. Working a little
longer on a light piece of wire is
much faster and easier than
having to pick up a heavy stone,
mark it a little bit, cut, then
mark again, and cut, and repeat
this process however many
times is necessary to get it
right. Hopefully you've shaped
the wire properly.
Place it atop your stone. If you
have a pencil or Sharpie marker,
place the wire onto the stone
and mark it from the inside of
the wire. (Make sure you don't
invert your template, otherwise
your stone will be worthless.
Sometimes you can salvage it
by flipping the stone, but if you
undercut it probably won't be;
so there are downsides to
undercutting, but it does more
good than bad). Once you've
marked your stone, put your
stone to that shape and it
should fit perfectly into place.
While doing stonemasonry, make
sure your joints are T's or I's . Try
never to make an X joint. Let me
explain. You've seen how bricks
are stacked, right? Each layer is
staggered. Suppose they weren't
staggered. You'd wind up with a
bundle of X joints. If they were a
map they'd be four-way stops
rather than T intersections. These
are bad. They look ugly and
usually cause a running joint. A
running joint is a joint that
extends more than three feet.
Those are bad. Why? Because as
the stonemasonry ages sometimes
cracks form. The first places cracks
form are in X joints and in the
running joints.
Keep in mind that there is more to
this job . There is always a quirky
little thing that you'll have to work
around. Hopefully you can work
around the problems presented to
you with reflection and
perseverance.
Proceed to master flat work .
Flatwork means working on floors.
This is faster, meaning that more
gets done in one day and you get
paid more for it; but you rarely do
it, so worship the employer that
gets it.
Set up your cutting operation . I
suppose you can use scaffolding,
but it's usually smarter to just use
a wheelbarrow. With that
wheelbarrow, get a particle board
that extends the length of the
thinner area of the wheelbarrow
and lay it down. Get your grinder
or wetsaw out and place it there.
That's your workspace.
Find out what pattern you're doing.
Start laying your stones. Obviously
there are going to be some
complicated cuts involved.
Get some plastic transparent
tarp that's inexpensive.
Sometimes it's stuff that's
usually used for masking or
stuff that you'll just find around,
or you can buy . Buy some
Sharpie markers, too. Place the
tarp around the place that
you're going to cut. Be sure to
stretch it out. Mark the shape of
the stone you're going to cut.
Write TOP in the middle of the
plastic template so that you
don't invert the stone. Find the
appropriate stone that's the
right size for the template. Put
some water on your stone and
place the plastic template on
the watery surface so that it
doesn't blow away or move. Cut
the stone to the shape you need
it.
by:wikihow.com

procedure of standarf penetration method (SPT)

Test Procedure 3.1.1. Test Hole PENETRATION TEST AND SPLIT-BARREL SAMPLING Drill the hole to the desired sampling depth and clean out all disturbed material. If a wet drill is used, flush out all cuttings. 3.1.2. Assembling Equipment Attach the split-barrel sampler to the A-rod and lower into the hole until it is sitting on the undisturbed material. Attach the drive weight assembly. Lift the 63.5 kg hammer approximately 0.76 m and allow it to fall on the anvil delivering one seating blow. Mark the drill rod in 3 successive .15 m increments to observe penetration. Mark the drive weight assembly to indicate a 0.76 m hammer lift. 3.1.3. Penetration Testing Raise and drop the hammer 0.76 m successively by means of the rope and cathead, using no more than 2 1/4 wraps around the cathead.  The hammer should be operated between 40 and 60 blows per minute and should drop freely. Continue the driving until either 0.45 m has been penetrated or 100 blows has been applied. Record the number of blows for each .15 m of the penetration.  The first 0.15 m increment is the "seating" drive.  The sum of the blows for second and third increment of 0.15 m penetration is termed "penetration resistance or "N-value". If the blow count exceeds 100 in total, terminate the test and record the number of blows for the last 0.30 m of penetration as the N- If less than 0.30 m is penetrated in 100 blows, record the depth penetrated and the blow count. If the sampler advances below the bottom of the hole under its own weight, note this condition on the log. 3.1.4. Handling Sample Bring the sampler to the surface and open it.  Remove any obvious contamination from the ends or sides and drain excess water.  Carefully scrape or slice along one side to expose fresh material and any stratification. Record the length, composition, colour, stratification and condition of sample. Remove sample and wrap it or seal in a plastic bag to retain moisture.  If the sample can be removed relatively intact, wrap it in several layers of plastic to strengthen it and seal ends with tape.  Mark the sample "top" and "bottom" if applicable and label it with an identification number

procedure of plate load test

Level the area to be tested with Ottawa sand using a straight edge and ensure test surface is level using a 2 ft. long spirit level.  Use the least quantity of sand required for uniform bearing.  If additional in-situ testing is to be conducted, cover the exposed soil materials to a distance of 6 ft. from the edge of the bearing plate with a tarpaulin or proof paper to prevent moisture loss during the test. Seat the 18 inch bearing plate on the leveled surface and verify that it is level. One way to do this is apply a 50 pound load and then check whether the plate is level. If it is not level, remove the load, turn or work the plate back and forth and then apply the 50 pound load and check the level again. Repeat this process until uniformly level seating of the plate is achieved. Center the remaining plates of smaller diameters concentric with and on top of the bearing plate.  Center the hydraulic jack or the drill rods on the smallest diameter plate.  Place the load cell between the hydraulic jack and the loading device.  In the case of drill rigs, the top load cell is attached to a short rod connected to the drill head and the bottom of load cell is attached to a longer rod that directly applies the load to the plate assembly. Mount the LVDT’s onto the deflection beam.  Place the LVDT’s so that the stems rest on the bearing plate not more than ¾ inches from the outer plate edge spaced 180 degrees apart.  Ensure the deflection beam is level and the LVDT’s have sufficient travel length to accommodate a minimum deflection of 1.5 inch. Extreme care must be exercised in order to avoid touching or bumping into the deflection beam while the test is in progress. Connect the cables for LVDT’s and load cell to the data acquisition system.  Also connect the data acquisition system to the lap top Computer.  Connect lap top Computer and data acquisition system to the power supply system. Confirm all electronic components are working, drill rig is level and load application system is plumb. Seating Procedure:  Seat the loading system and bearing plate by applying a load of 1,000 pounds.  Maintain the seating load for a minimum period of 2 minutes.    Record the deflections reading from each LVDT for the 1,000 pound seating load and calculate the average deflection. Do not start the test until the deflection from each LVDT does not change by more than 0.001” per 30 seconds. oad Application:  Apply load continuously at a rate of 1,000 lbs. per 15 seconds until a load of 10,000 lbs. is achieved.  Maintain the 10,000 lbs. load for one minute and then start decreasing the load at a rate of 1000 lbs. per minute for the first 2,000 pounds (from 10,000 to 8,000 lbs.) and then increase the rate to 1,000 lbs. per 15 seconds from 8,000 lbs. to 1,000 lbs.  Maintain the 1,000 lbs. load constant for one minute and then repeat the loading sequence for one more cycle. There is no need to maintain the 1,000 pound seating load for 1 minute at the end of the second cycle. Observe the data acquisition system throughout to ensure that all the data is being recorded.  The test is terminated after the third cycle

importance of accuracy in land survey

Accuracy is one of the most important factors of land surveys. The purpose of a land survey is to accurately map and designate land boundaries. Any
inaccuracies can lead to potential legal issues down the track. Some types of land surveys require even more accuracy than others as they are used to help
establish where to construct buildings by taking into account topographic and hydrological features such as sewage systems and trees. Any inaccuracies could
cause difficulties in the building process.
The accuracy of land surveys is particularly important when they are used for map making as the wider community relies on the accuracy of maps and assumes
that they are precise documents. Note the 2005 version of ALTA specifications, "ALTA" stands for American Land Title Association, states a Positional Accuracy
of 0.07 feet or 20mm in new money, plus 50 parts per million. Many of the modern instruments used by a Land Surveyor have an accuracy of distance
measurements to within 2mm +/- 2 ppm but that alone does not assure compliance with the ALTA standards. The ALTA Standards require that these condition
are taken into account: The Relative Positional Accuracy may be tested by either:
1. Comparing the relative location of points in a survey as measured by an independent survey of higher accuracy or; In other words the survey would required
to be a traverse ending at its point of origin, beginning and ending on two different points of higher order. These higher orders can be monuments can be NGS
monuments, or monuments established on an older survey where the location was determined in accordance with condition 2 as here.
2. the results of a minimally constrained correctly weighted least square adjustment of the survey.
The surveyor needs to apply a squares adjustment program. Therefore the surveyor needs to know the accuracy standards of their equipment and surveying
techniques. This means they must know the distance and angular measurement specifications of their instrument and an estimate of such things as centering
tolerance.

Surveying Equipments - New

Recent development in technology has provided some of the finest surveying equipments present today.
Moreover, with the introduction of global positioning system, the methods of surveying have also totally
changed. GPS has not only made surveying faster but has increased the accuracy to amazing heights. GPS
works with the help of satellite systems which provide accurate data directly on the computer screen. Various
types of GPS equipment is available, from basic to highly advanced. Some GPS equipment even have night
vision which facilitates surveying during the night time. However, it is said that though GPS helps in
acquiring the exact position of the land; it does not provide good results in dense forest areas or concrete
constructions. For this reason, an instrument known as total station is used along with the GPS.
Total station is a theodolite with an Electronic Distance Measurement Device.
Total station has also been one of the reasons behind the drastic change of
technology in the surveying field. EDMD shifted the surveying technology from
optical mechanical devices to digital electronic devices. In spite of just being
distance measuring equipment, total station can also be used for leveling when
adjusted in a horizontal plane. Most of the ultra-modern surveying devices are a
combination of one or more of these devices.
There is a long list of surveying equipment available in the market today. The
selection of particular equipment depends on the type of application and accuracy
required. Though all these equipment provide a wide range of options to surveyors,
it is advisable to have a thorough knowledge of both, the equipment and the desired survey. This would not
only help in bringing accuracy to the work but would also save considerable time and money.

surveying equipments-old

urveying Equipments - Old
In ancient times surveying equipment included chains, compass, solar compass, transit, theodolite and more.
Chains with equal size links were used to measure distance between two required points. A compass was
used to measure the direction of a line that was being surveyed. A solar compass was used for measuring
both the direction and latitude of a particular point with the help of sun and stars. A Solar Compass could
also measure horizontal angles and the “true north” of a particular place. A metallic measuring tape was
used to measure shorter distances.
As technology gradually advanced with time, instruments used for surveying also improved. Horizontal and
vertical angles were measured using a simple theodolite whereas different heights were measured by a basic
level. Measuring wheels were also initially used by surveyors to measure long distances in a short duration of
time. Measuring wheels came in two types: mechanical and electrical, and both worked on the same principle
of rolling the wheel from the start to the end point.
In the early 1900s, surveyors started to use surveying equipment such as planimeters, theodolites, automatic
levels and measuring wheels. A planimeter is the best known tool for measuring asymmetrical land areas as
they eliminate the need for charts or manual calculations; whereas a theodolite allows measuring of
horizontal and vertical angles. A theodolite consists of a movable telescope attached over perpendicular axis.
It provides precise measurement of angles and is an integral part of every surveying tool kit. A transit is a
type of theodolite but has less precision.
An auto level or a dumpy level is also a type of surveying equipment used for measuring horizontal levels. It
consists of a telescope like device fitted on a tripod stand. Auto level, tilting level, and self-leveling level are
all types of leveling instruments, each providing different rotating capabilities.
Most surveying instruments are fixed on a tripod, which acts as a support. As the name suggests, tripods
have three legs with length varying capability. Many of these equipments are still used by surveyors around
the

AAC block

AAC Blocks also known as autoclaved cellular concrete ( ACC ) or autoclaved lightweight concrete ( ALC ), was
invented in the mid-1920s by the Swedish architect and inventor Johan Axel Eriksson. It is a lightweight, precast
building material that simultaneously provides structure, insulation, and fire and mold resistance. AAC products
include AAC blocks , AAC U Blocks AAC wall panels , AAC floor and roof panels , and AAC lintels .
AAC Blocks ( Autoclaved Aerated Concrete - " AAC ") a unique and excellent type of building materials due to its
super heat, fire and sound resistance, AAC blocks is lightweight and offers ultimate workability, flexibility and
durability. Its main ingredients include sand, water, quicklime, cement and gypsum. The chemical reaction due to
the aluminum paste provides AAC its distinct porous structure, lightness, and insulation properties, completely
different compared to other lightweight concrete materials.
Aerated Concrete Blocks - AAC is produced from the common materials lime,
sand, cement and water, and a small amount of rising agent. After mixing and
molding, it is then autoclaved under heat and pressure to create its unique
properties. AAC has excellent thermal insulation and acoustic absorption
properties. AAC is fire and pest resistant, and is economically and
environmentally superior to the more traditional structural building materials
such as concrete , wood, brick and stone.
AAC BLOCKS begins as a slurry mix of lime, sand, cement and water, and a small amount of rising agent.
For reinforced panels , a welded steel cage element is placed into the molds prior to pouring in the slurry.
Once the slurry is poured in, the mixture begins to foam and rise up completely around the reinforcing cage.
Once the rising process is complete the cage and the AAC are completely integrated and ready to be placed into
the autoclave for the curing process.