modern construction technology introduction

Designs of man-made structures are more complex than ever before, and they are getting no-
simpler. Requirements are increasing. Human tendency to compare the previous project with the
future one is just one of the reasons. Other reasons for pushing the construction engineering off
limits, include increasing population, use of newly developed materials together with software
developments, which allow us to design these complex structures. The engineering techniques
required for the implementation of designs are highly specific in nature and vary from design to
design. Look alone at the simple construction of pavement designs. Here, the performance of the
pavement is largely dependent on the sub grade and base layers. Durability and stability of the
pavement are decided by the ability of the sub base layers to provide strength and modulus in the
moist and underground conditions.
Since the top most layer is usually the one facing the largest stress and hence coated with
premium materials, the foundation must be uniform and stiff to support them. Engineering
constructions have grown to become highly sophisticated and organized in nature. One of the
prominent reasons is the concern for the safety of human life. In the simple case of pavement
engineering itself, there are various ways to measure the quality of construction. One of them is
Ride Quality parameter which measures the ride quality on the pavement. Non-destructive testing
techniques include Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) and Falling Weight Deflectometers (FWD).
We prepared and published this seminar abstract for final year engineering students seminar
research. You should do your own research additional to this information before presenting your
seminar.

plinth

1. Prevent leaking of water into foundation -
To prevent a house from settling it is
critical that no water be leaked into
foundation. Being made of cement, plinth
beam is impervious and therefore prevents
water from rain, flooding, etc. from leaking
into foundation.
2. Provides support for walls - For load
bearing houses, walls carry the weight of
the house. Plinth beam provides solid
footing to raise those walls.
3. Holds house together - Since plinth beam
sits across the periphery of the house, it
provides binding force across rooms. For
example, without plinth beam it is
possible for one of the rooms to settle
thus creating uneven floor level. Plinth
beam prevents that from happening.
Basic process to construct plinth beam is as
follows:
1. Mark-up width - Usually width of plinth is
half that of the foundation. In this case,
foundation is about 18" wide and so
plinth is 9" aligning with the outer edge of
the foundation. Inner 9" of foundation
meshes into the floor level of the house.
2. Lay down the steel beam - As the
adjacent picture shows beams are the
core of the plinth beam.  Beams have a
loop every 6" that holds it together.
3. Setup re-inforcement - Before concrete is
poured, re-inforcement has to be
established to provide rectangular shape
to the beam. This takes majority of effort
as planks have to be nailed properly in
place and once concrete is poured they
need to be removed.
4. Pour the concrete - Next step is to pour
the concrete. As concrete is poured,
mason ensures that it is evenly spread
and smoothens out any edges. He also
needs to ensure the height of the beam is
consistent throughout the periphery.
5. Remove re-inforcement - Concrete turns
solid within 24-hour and final step is to
remove the planks leaving the beam
intact.
This short video explains this process in
action.
Foundation Redone:
To give background context, ground level at
living room area is 1' higher than that at the
guest bedroom level. Typical height of plinth
level is 2.5' that includes 1' of plinth beam
and 1.5' of foundation masonry. Turns out
though that foundation masonry was 2.5' at
living room and 3.5' at guest bedroom. What
this meant was plinth height would be 3.5'
from natural ground level. This was realized
only when plinth beam casting was about to
start. To add to misery, by then Rainwater
tank was already done to align with 3.5' of
plinth !
My architect was clear that plinth level can
be no taller than 2.5' or else house would
look place oddly high. What followed was no
fun - We ended-up undoing a few days of
work. Specifically
Reduce Rainwater tank height
by 1' by chipping away at
just-finished concrete tank
Remove 1-layer of foundation
stone masonry from across
the house periphery to reduce
the foundation height by 1'.
Here is the clip of work being undone. It
could have been worse had plinth beam been
built. Good news was we caught it at a time
that cost us about a week and some cost in
material and labor. Having said that, there
were key lessons learnt -
1. Trust your gut instinct - Even though as
homeowners we may not be in
construction business, you have a feel for
what's going on. I certainly did feel that
foundation was looking tall. While "plinth"
was a new term and I didn't know that it
was 1' in height I concluded I knew no
better. That was the critical mistake. No
question is a dumb question especially
when you are new to the domain. Had I
had surfaced my instinct more strongly or
did some research things could have been
different.
2. Working drawing consultation - I
independently found my architect and
contractor. So they had no prior
relationship between them. When architect
released drawings there was no
consultation that occurred between the
two. So, architect didn't get a chance to
explain the nitty-gritty and contractor felt
drawings were clear-enough. A big no-
no ! It is critical that drawings are
released to contractor only after architect
has had a chance to explain them to the
contractor. It is best to have such
meetings at the site to relate paper
drawings to the actual mapping onsite.
Often times, what looks right on paper
doesn't feel right to the eye. If that's not
possible, have them meet at architect's
office.
3. Inspection schedule - Identify stages at
which architect would come and inspect
the site to validate it is built according to
the specifications. In this case, architect
mentioned a couple of times need to
schedule inspection. However, given that
this was first or second inspection we
were not as diligent as needed.
Again, in retrospect, it was not a terrible
setback.. Like many other things in life, none
of the lessons were new; rather they were re-
inforcement of what you would learn at many
other times. Lessons learnt were critical and
have since been put in practice. There is now
tighter collaboration between me or my wife,
architect and the contractor and crisper
conversation about respective point of view.
So, in the end it definitely had a silver lining !

ground beam of building

GROUND BEAMS
Here at Performance Foundations we can provide you with
traditional or piled ground beams for any building project you
may have, such as, an extension, single plot or multiple plots. By
having ground beams installed you can improve construction programmes by reducing poor ground conditions.
Ground Beams are designed to support brick/blockwork or to form a permanent shutter to the edge of insitu
concrete floor slab. The amount of reinforcement introduced into the design will be used to suit specific loading
requirements and the beams can be designed to withstand any heave forces with the use of void forming or
compressible materials.
Installation may require piling, then once that is complete we excavate the ground to a width and depth required
by your design or shuttered above ground. Reinforcement is then placed and the pile reinforcement tied into the
ground beam. After inspection by the relevant authorities the beam will be concreted.
FLOOR STABILISATION
In situations where industrial floors and yards are subject to excessive loading, we can improve the loadbearing
properties of the surface by pile insertion. This is a quick and clean process and causes minimal disruption to
your business.
To support existing concrete ground floor slabs, we can install a permanent pile casing in a pre-bored hole to a
calculated 'set' to carry the working loads. Piles are installed at designed centres and constructed to support the
existing concrete slab by means of an enlarged head at the top of the pile.

steps of foundation of building

Survey and Stake
Before any construction can begin, the home site is surveyed to
establish the home's basic footprint and to ensure the home is set
back the appropriate distances from the property lines. The corners
of the home are marked by surveyor's stakes. Offset stakes, which
are about two feet out from the surveyor's stakes, also are placed.
The excavator will dig at the offset stakes, creating a slightly larger
hole than the foundation actually will occupy. The extra room
enables crews to work on the exterior of the foundation walls.
Excavation
The depth of the excavation is determined by a structural engineer
who considers the soil, the frost line and the height of the water
table (the depth in the soil at which you find water). Surface soil is
removed to expose soil that is compacted enough to bear the load of
the home. The excavation must be deep enough to place the top of
the footing below the frost line. This prevents the concrete from
cracking due to the freeze-thaw cycle of the surrounding soil. The
excavation cannot be so deep that it's below the water table,
however, because that can cause a chronically wet or flooded
basement.
Footings
Footings are poured concrete pathways that help to spread the
weight of the home from the foundation walls to the surrounding
soil. Footings are wider than the foundation walls they support, and
form the perimeter of the home. Sometimes, additional footings are
added inside the perimeter to support load-bearing interior walls.
Sub-slab Systems
Plumbing lines are run from the street to the home's basement, by
going under or over the footing. In some regions, soil gas mitigation
systems are added to collect the soil gases trapped under the slab
and vent them to the outside. Eventually, these systems will be
covered with the poured concrete slab that is the basement floor.
Foundation Drainage Tile System
This system collects subsurface water and moves it away from the
foundation. Foundation drainage tile consists of a continuous run of
perforated drainage pipes embedded in gravel along the outside
perimeter of the footings.
Some building codes require drainage pipes along the inside
perimeter of the footings as well.
Sump
In regions where the earth is flat or the soil tends to be wet, a sump
may be added to help collect subsurface water. A sump pump moves
the collected water away from the home.
Walls
Foundation walls are constructed by pouring concrete between sets
of form work (the total system of support assemblies for freshly
poured concrete, including mold, hardware and necessary bracing.)
Once the concrete gains its full strength, the form work is removed.
Foundation wall thickness is determined by a structural engineer
who considers the height of the wall and the load it has to bear.
(Structural load is the force or combination of forces of gravity,
wind, and earth that acts upon the structural system of a home).
Wall thickness varies from home to home, and even within a home.
Anchor Bolts
Anchor bolts are embedded at pre-determined points along the top
of the foundation walls. They'll be used during framing to secure the
framing to the foundation.
Beam Pockets
Beam pockets are cast in the top of the foundation walls to receive,
support, and hold beams in place.
Dampproofing and Waterproofing
A dampproofing or waterproofing seal is applied to the exterior of
the foundation walls that eventually will be below-ground. This
slows or stops water from traveling through the walls and into the
basement.
Slab
A 3-inch to 4-inch thick concrete slab is poured between the walls.
The slab helps to stabilize the base of the foundation walls, and
also forms the basement floor.
Backfill
Backfill is pushed into the trenches around the exterior of the
foundation walls, burying a portion or all of the walls below the
surface for added stability. Ideally, backfill is soil that drains easily.

soil stabilization

Introduction
Soil stabilization refers to the process of changing soil
properties to improve strength and durability. There are many
techniques for soil stabilization, including compaction,
dewatering and by adding material to the soil. This summary
will focus on mechanical and chemical stabilization based
adding IRC materials. Mechanical stabilization improves soil
properties by mixing other soil materials with the target soil
to change the gradation and therefore change the engineering
properties. Chemical stabilization used the addition of
cementitious or pozzolanic materials to improve the soil
properties. Chemical stabilization has traditionally relied on
Portland cement and lime for chemical stabilization. There a
number of IRC materials that can be used individually, or
mixed with other materials, to achieve soil stabilization.
IRC Materials in Soil Stabilization Applications
Coal fly ash (CFA) has a long history of use in soil stabilization applications. Class F CFA is typically
added to both cement and lime stabilized soils because the pozzolanic reactions provide improved
strength and increased density and durability. In addition, self-cementing (Class C) CFA has been used
successfully to stabilize fined grained soils. It was found that the rapid reactions of the Class C CFA
reduced the plasticity of the soil, lowered the water content and increased the strength of the soil.
Similarly, blast furnace slag in the form of slag cement has also been used successfully for soil
stabilization. Slag cement can be used by itself or mixed with Portland cement, depending on the site
conditions. Slag cement is a cost effective way to dewater the soil and increases the strength. In addition,
work has shown that soil cement can help mitigate sulfate-induced heave than is often encountered
during lime stabilization of sulfate bearing soils.
It should be noted that the performance of CFA and slag cement in soil stabilization applications, like that
of lime and cement, is very dependent on the site conditions. The fines content and plasticity of the soil,
the presence of sulfates, depth to the water table and freeze-thaw conditions are all factors that need to
be considered when stabilizing soil. Test mixture should be made to determine the best mixture for the
site.
Foundry sand has also been shown to be an effective soil stabilization material when added to poor soils
to change the gradation. The foundry sand improves drainage, which leads to better engineering
performance.
Benefits
The use of coal fly ash, slag cement and foundry sand for soil
stabilization provides cost effective methods to improve the
engineering properties of marginal or problematic soils. Soils
stabilized with these materials have been extensively tested
and do not have any adverse environmental impact. In fact,
there is actually an added environmental benefit of reducing
green house gas emissions and energy consumption by using
less energy intensive materials like lime and cement, and by
reducing landfilling of high quality foundry sands.

methods of improving bearing capacity of soil

1. Increasing the depth of the footing is the simplest method of improve the bearing capacity of
soil, This method is restricted to sites where the sub-soil water level is much below and deep
excavations do not increase the cost of foundations disproportionately.
2. Drainage is a well known method to improve the bearing capacity of certain soils . Drains (with
open joints) are laid in trenches just at the footing base. The sub-soil water thus collected is
drained out through a system of pipe drains provided outside the external walls of the building.
3. By blending granular material, like sand, gravel or crushed stone into the natural soil by
ramming. The layer of soil thus formed is much stronger and is of improved bearing capacity.
4. By confining the soil in an enclosed area with the help of sheet piles. This method is used with
advantage in shallow foundations in sandy soils.
5. By driving sand piles. This method is based on the principle of reducing the void volume of the
natural soil. Holes are made in the soft soil with the help of wooden piles or other means and
then sand is filled in the holes and rammed. These are called sand piles. Bearing capacity of soft
soil can be appreciably improved by driving sand piles at close spacing.

affordable housing

The affordable housing segment has emerged
as one of the most vibrant and dynamic
sectors in the Indian real estate industry.
Various factors have contributed to this
growth—on the supply side it is the entry of
various real estate developers and
availability of financial options; whereas
rapid urbanization, growing trend of nuclear
families and rising income levels have fuelled
the demand for affordable housing. There is
hardly a dispute that there still is a
considerable supply shortage in this
segment.
As a concept, affordable housing is not a
new one. It is at least a decade old, with the
local development agencies of big cities
being the original pioneers with their lower
income group flats. While the market for
affordable homes never really diminished,
large real estate firms started focusing
almost exclusively on premium and luxury
projects between 2004 and 2008 as the
economy expanded rapidly and banks and
financial institutions adopted a more liberal
approach to giving out loans.
Since 2008, however, with the overall
changes in the economy and the real estate
market, companies, even large ones, have
turned to low-cost housing projects with a
renewed focus. Large scale real estate firms
have launched low-cost homes at various
locations in the price bracket of Rs.10 lakh
to Rs.30 lakh and investments in the
affordable housing sector are moving north.
A recent news report spotted a rising trend of
homes in the affordable segment being
bought for investment. These were bought by
people who do not plan to stay in them as
the houses are located too far away from
commercial areas and have lesser support
infrastructure. Gujarat, Bangalore, Madhya
Pradesh and Ahmedabad are among the
states that have seen traction in affordable
housing. Given the lower off-take of mid-
range and luxury units in India that are
clearly seeing some challenges, the growth is
going to be sustained from rural and
affordable housing in the range of about
18-20% coupled with the aspirational need
to have a house and by the acute shortage in
this sector.
While less than five years ago there were not
many financiers for customers of affordable
housing, today most big names are entering
rural housing with built-in risk pricing so as
to make it a viable business model. Big
names in the industry are rushing into the
sector to cater to the existing demand
supply gap. More and more projects are
being promoted across India. Tier II and III
cities have seen a higher rate of adoption for
these projects. Low-income customers are
happy with their new homes, improved living
conditions, safe neighbourhoods and
enhanced overall social status, which are
some of the benefits that the segment has
been able to provide. Many banks may be
slow to approach affordable housing
properties because of their remote location
and the estimated land value not meeting
their expectations. In such cases, loans
would be harder to come by and the
perceived higher rates of interest may deter
potential buyers from approaching non-
banking financial companies (NBFCs) that
now focus on retail housing finance business,
a sector dominated by commercial banks.
NBFCs, though, have been able to offer loans
at competitive rates. While banks have been
able to provide loans at relatively cheaper
rates since their cost of funds is lower, debt
markets have come in handy for NBFCs to
raise cheaper funds. Essentially, their focus
on growth segments, efficient loan recovery,
individual focus and simple processes have
helped them keep the cost low and reduce
interest rates on home loans, passing it on
to borrowers.
Indians consider their homes their most
important possession, and, therefore, make
paying their financial obligations towards
them their highest priority. In a challenging
economy, people may think twice before
making any new high-value financial
commitments. They tend to be very cautious
about doing so during times of financial
uncertainty but pursue their home ownership
dreams when they perceive that stability has
been restored in the economy.
The concept of affordable housing as a whole
has been well received by consumers,
developers and financiers; this has led to
end-to-end servicing of this segment, thus
becoming a lucrative proposition for one and
all. Housing finance companies are
expanding to new geographies and
encouraging developer perception of real
demand and ensuring there is enough
awareness and education being imparted to
prospective customers on the home
ownership process through standardization
of processes and campaigns. It helped that
in December, the Reserve Bank of India
allowed real estate developers and housing
finance companies to raise up to $1 billion
through external commercial borrowings to
promote affordable housing projects. This
will help them access cheap overseas funds
and reduce the overall costs. Affordable
housing is the “sunshine” sector for the next
five years from a developer and lender
perspective. To put it simply, this will be the
growth engine of the future for all
stakeholders.

How stone masonry I done

Know the difference between a
stonemason and other related
trades. A stonemason is completely
different from a brick layer, block
layer, tile setter, and a
"phonystonemason"; "phonystone"
is exactly what its name implies it
to be - a phony or a fake. Phony
brickwork will mostly consist of
concrete and a fake thin film that's
completely worthless and will flake
off in a matter of 15 years or
slightly longer. Stonemasons
actually work with real stone.
Learn how to do wallrock. Wallrock
is the type of work stonemasons
do the most. Separate the two
words "wall" and "rock", meaning
you're putting rock together with
"mortar" in order to make a wall.
Construct a cutting operation .
Usually this is done with two
scaffolds and an X-brace and
about three planks. Two should be
at about hip level and one at the
top of the scaffold, so that you can
put a bucket full of water up top.
This is so that you can create a
syphon for your wetsaw, should
you need it. It's usually safe to
assume you'll need it every day.
Get your tools and plug them in
and place them where you'll need
them . Sometimes you won't need
all your tools but take out the
ones that you'll need with that
specific job. If you don't know
which tools you'll need, take all of
them.
Consider where your cement is
going to be coming from . If it's not
smart for you to have a
wheelbarrow full of cement, get a
mud board. A MUD BOARD can
usually be found on every job site.
It's just any flat board that you wet
down and place cement on.
Get a good amount of stone and
adorn it all around your cutting
operation. You want a good
selection to work with, but don't
take all the good stones if you
have other stonemasons on the job
that could use some. Just use
those really good ones you might
need and leave it at that.
Before you mix any cement, look at
your wall and think about what you
might need . If it's a pillar or
something that has a corner, then
you're going to have to string a
line or a series of lines. This
means you'll need a tightly strung
string that is strung from above
where you're working and all the
way down to the bottom at a
specific measurement. So suppose
you're wrapping your stone around
a pillar and your distance is two
and a half inches away from the
wall; cut a 2x4 at about a six inch
length. Then get some particle
board and cut it in a long strip.
Drill the six inch long 2x4 to the
particle board with two screws so
that the tension in the line doesn't
cause the 2x4 to pivot. Drill the
particle board to the wall. Measure
from the two walls two and a half
inches and make those
measurement marks on the 2x4.
Extend those marks with a square
to the point to where the
measurement marks intersect. Drill
a screw into that intersection
point, but don't drill it 100% into
the wood. Leave some of the screw
out a little ways. Now, tie a stiff
and durable string to that screw
you just drilled. Make sure that the
string reaches all the way to the
bottom with a little extra
remaining.
Dig all the way down to the
foundation or footing of the
structure you're going to be
working on. If there's not enough
of a footing, then you'll have to dig
about a foot deep and pile in some
stiff cement into that hole in order
to make your own footing.
Lay your first stone at the corner .
Make sure it's at two and a half
inches out on both ends of both
walls. You can do this with a
square and a measuring tape to
make sure the edge of your stone
is at the proper measurement.
When working with corners, you'll
usually need a natural edge or a
chiseled edge. Make sure not to
leave a saw cut edge on the rock,
unless you're told to do that by
your employer... but you're not
likely ever to encounter that
situation.
Get another screw and tie it to the
bottom end of your string . Make
sure it's tight enough so that when
you tuck it underneath your first
cornerstone you'll have tension on
the line, but it won't lift your stone
up off the ground because the
cement is still wet. If this is the
first time you're doing this, you'll
get frustrated with this process.
You'll learn how to do it right in
time.
Try to make sure that the line isn't
off. Measure, measure, measure,
re-measure, and measure again.
When working with corners, this is
the most vital thing. If it's off, then
you might have to tear out two to
three days of work - if not more -
which obviously sucks if you're
paid by the square footage and
sucks even more when you're being
paid the the hour because then
you're in danger of losing your job
for pay that wasn't delivered to
your employer. So make sure you
measure as much of everything
that seems important and even
some of the things you'd usually
not consider. Just measure,
measure, and measure some more.
It's hard to get to the point to
where you're measuring too much.
Keep your joints as tight as can be.
Sometimes this means you need to
undercut some of your stone and
not just cut straight down on your
rock. Don't undercut at a too
dramatic angle but just enough to
fit your stones nice and snugly
together without having one
overlap the other. Make sure every
stone is flush - unless your
employer wants a Rustic look. (The
way to tell if you're a good
stonemason is to see if you're
organized and that your work
meets customers expectations.)
Be aware that there are going to be
points in time when you're working
with rather tight fits and difficult
cuts. For example, you'll be picking
up this big heavy stone and
moving it around and making
marks on the stone and cutting it
a little bit, then repeating this
process in order to finally lay the
stone. The more you play with a
stone, the more likely it's going to
break. So you can either work with
lots and lots of small rock, or you
can use a template. This is a trick
of the trade!
Buy some wire that's not tie
wire. (Tie wire is too stiff, you
need some wire that you can
move and shape easily; usually
this means having a thinner
caliber of wire. However, if it's
too thin it won't hold its shape
and it'll sag and waste your
time.) Find a brand of wire that
you're comfortable with.
Get a good length of wire, cut it,
then wrap the two ends
together. You should have a
circular-looking type of wire.
Put it in those difficult to cut
places and shape it to the
shape the outer portions the
shone should be. Shape it so
that it's not touching any of the
already laid stones. Spend an
extra minute or two just to make
sure it's right. Working a little
longer on a light piece of wire is
much faster and easier than
having to pick up a heavy stone,
mark it a little bit, cut, then
mark again, and cut, and repeat
this process however many
times is necessary to get it
right. Hopefully you've shaped
the wire properly.
Place it atop your stone. If you
have a pencil or Sharpie marker,
place the wire onto the stone
and mark it from the inside of
the wire. (Make sure you don't
invert your template, otherwise
your stone will be worthless.
Sometimes you can salvage it
by flipping the stone, but if you
undercut it probably won't be;
so there are downsides to
undercutting, but it does more
good than bad). Once you've
marked your stone, put your
stone to that shape and it
should fit perfectly into place.
While doing stonemasonry, make
sure your joints are T's or I's . Try
never to make an X joint. Let me
explain. You've seen how bricks
are stacked, right? Each layer is
staggered. Suppose they weren't
staggered. You'd wind up with a
bundle of X joints. If they were a
map they'd be four-way stops
rather than T intersections. These
are bad. They look ugly and
usually cause a running joint. A
running joint is a joint that
extends more than three feet.
Those are bad. Why? Because as
the stonemasonry ages sometimes
cracks form. The first places cracks
form are in X joints and in the
running joints.
Keep in mind that there is more to
this job . There is always a quirky
little thing that you'll have to work
around. Hopefully you can work
around the problems presented to
you with reflection and
perseverance.
Proceed to master flat work .
Flatwork means working on floors.
This is faster, meaning that more
gets done in one day and you get
paid more for it; but you rarely do
it, so worship the employer that
gets it.
Set up your cutting operation . I
suppose you can use scaffolding,
but it's usually smarter to just use
a wheelbarrow. With that
wheelbarrow, get a particle board
that extends the length of the
thinner area of the wheelbarrow
and lay it down. Get your grinder
or wetsaw out and place it there.
That's your workspace.
Find out what pattern you're doing.
Start laying your stones. Obviously
there are going to be some
complicated cuts involved.
Get some plastic transparent
tarp that's inexpensive.
Sometimes it's stuff that's
usually used for masking or
stuff that you'll just find around,
or you can buy . Buy some
Sharpie markers, too. Place the
tarp around the place that
you're going to cut. Be sure to
stretch it out. Mark the shape of
the stone you're going to cut.
Write TOP in the middle of the
plastic template so that you
don't invert the stone. Find the
appropriate stone that's the
right size for the template. Put
some water on your stone and
place the plastic template on
the watery surface so that it
doesn't blow away or move. Cut
the stone to the shape you need
it.
by:wikihow.com

procedure of standarf penetration method (SPT)

Test Procedure 3.1.1. Test Hole PENETRATION TEST AND SPLIT-BARREL SAMPLING Drill the hole to the desired sampling depth and clean out all disturbed material. If a wet drill is used, flush out all cuttings. 3.1.2. Assembling Equipment Attach the split-barrel sampler to the A-rod and lower into the hole until it is sitting on the undisturbed material. Attach the drive weight assembly. Lift the 63.5 kg hammer approximately 0.76 m and allow it to fall on the anvil delivering one seating blow. Mark the drill rod in 3 successive .15 m increments to observe penetration. Mark the drive weight assembly to indicate a 0.76 m hammer lift. 3.1.3. Penetration Testing Raise and drop the hammer 0.76 m successively by means of the rope and cathead, using no more than 2 1/4 wraps around the cathead.  The hammer should be operated between 40 and 60 blows per minute and should drop freely. Continue the driving until either 0.45 m has been penetrated or 100 blows has been applied. Record the number of blows for each .15 m of the penetration.  The first 0.15 m increment is the "seating" drive.  The sum of the blows for second and third increment of 0.15 m penetration is termed "penetration resistance or "N-value". If the blow count exceeds 100 in total, terminate the test and record the number of blows for the last 0.30 m of penetration as the N- If less than 0.30 m is penetrated in 100 blows, record the depth penetrated and the blow count. If the sampler advances below the bottom of the hole under its own weight, note this condition on the log. 3.1.4. Handling Sample Bring the sampler to the surface and open it.  Remove any obvious contamination from the ends or sides and drain excess water.  Carefully scrape or slice along one side to expose fresh material and any stratification. Record the length, composition, colour, stratification and condition of sample. Remove sample and wrap it or seal in a plastic bag to retain moisture.  If the sample can be removed relatively intact, wrap it in several layers of plastic to strengthen it and seal ends with tape.  Mark the sample "top" and "bottom" if applicable and label it with an identification number

procedure of plate load test

Level the area to be tested with Ottawa sand using a straight edge and ensure test surface is level using a 2 ft. long spirit level.  Use the least quantity of sand required for uniform bearing.  If additional in-situ testing is to be conducted, cover the exposed soil materials to a distance of 6 ft. from the edge of the bearing plate with a tarpaulin or proof paper to prevent moisture loss during the test. Seat the 18 inch bearing plate on the leveled surface and verify that it is level. One way to do this is apply a 50 pound load and then check whether the plate is level. If it is not level, remove the load, turn or work the plate back and forth and then apply the 50 pound load and check the level again. Repeat this process until uniformly level seating of the plate is achieved. Center the remaining plates of smaller diameters concentric with and on top of the bearing plate.  Center the hydraulic jack or the drill rods on the smallest diameter plate.  Place the load cell between the hydraulic jack and the loading device.  In the case of drill rigs, the top load cell is attached to a short rod connected to the drill head and the bottom of load cell is attached to a longer rod that directly applies the load to the plate assembly. Mount the LVDT’s onto the deflection beam.  Place the LVDT’s so that the stems rest on the bearing plate not more than ¾ inches from the outer plate edge spaced 180 degrees apart.  Ensure the deflection beam is level and the LVDT’s have sufficient travel length to accommodate a minimum deflection of 1.5 inch. Extreme care must be exercised in order to avoid touching or bumping into the deflection beam while the test is in progress. Connect the cables for LVDT’s and load cell to the data acquisition system.  Also connect the data acquisition system to the lap top Computer.  Connect lap top Computer and data acquisition system to the power supply system. Confirm all electronic components are working, drill rig is level and load application system is plumb. Seating Procedure:  Seat the loading system and bearing plate by applying a load of 1,000 pounds.  Maintain the seating load for a minimum period of 2 minutes.    Record the deflections reading from each LVDT for the 1,000 pound seating load and calculate the average deflection. Do not start the test until the deflection from each LVDT does not change by more than 0.001” per 30 seconds. oad Application:  Apply load continuously at a rate of 1,000 lbs. per 15 seconds until a load of 10,000 lbs. is achieved.  Maintain the 10,000 lbs. load for one minute and then start decreasing the load at a rate of 1000 lbs. per minute for the first 2,000 pounds (from 10,000 to 8,000 lbs.) and then increase the rate to 1,000 lbs. per 15 seconds from 8,000 lbs. to 1,000 lbs.  Maintain the 1,000 lbs. load constant for one minute and then repeat the loading sequence for one more cycle. There is no need to maintain the 1,000 pound seating load for 1 minute at the end of the second cycle. Observe the data acquisition system throughout to ensure that all the data is being recorded.  The test is terminated after the third cycle

importance of accuracy in land survey

Accuracy is one of the most important factors of land surveys. The purpose of a land survey is to accurately map and designate land boundaries. Any
inaccuracies can lead to potential legal issues down the track. Some types of land surveys require even more accuracy than others as they are used to help
establish where to construct buildings by taking into account topographic and hydrological features such as sewage systems and trees. Any inaccuracies could
cause difficulties in the building process.
The accuracy of land surveys is particularly important when they are used for map making as the wider community relies on the accuracy of maps and assumes
that they are precise documents. Note the 2005 version of ALTA specifications, "ALTA" stands for American Land Title Association, states a Positional Accuracy
of 0.07 feet or 20mm in new money, plus 50 parts per million. Many of the modern instruments used by a Land Surveyor have an accuracy of distance
measurements to within 2mm +/- 2 ppm but that alone does not assure compliance with the ALTA standards. The ALTA Standards require that these condition
are taken into account: The Relative Positional Accuracy may be tested by either:
1. Comparing the relative location of points in a survey as measured by an independent survey of higher accuracy or; In other words the survey would required
to be a traverse ending at its point of origin, beginning and ending on two different points of higher order. These higher orders can be monuments can be NGS
monuments, or monuments established on an older survey where the location was determined in accordance with condition 2 as here.
2. the results of a minimally constrained correctly weighted least square adjustment of the survey.
The surveyor needs to apply a squares adjustment program. Therefore the surveyor needs to know the accuracy standards of their equipment and surveying
techniques. This means they must know the distance and angular measurement specifications of their instrument and an estimate of such things as centering
tolerance.

Surveying Equipments - New

Recent development in technology has provided some of the finest surveying equipments present today.
Moreover, with the introduction of global positioning system, the methods of surveying have also totally
changed. GPS has not only made surveying faster but has increased the accuracy to amazing heights. GPS
works with the help of satellite systems which provide accurate data directly on the computer screen. Various
types of GPS equipment is available, from basic to highly advanced. Some GPS equipment even have night
vision which facilitates surveying during the night time. However, it is said that though GPS helps in
acquiring the exact position of the land; it does not provide good results in dense forest areas or concrete
constructions. For this reason, an instrument known as total station is used along with the GPS.
Total station is a theodolite with an Electronic Distance Measurement Device.
Total station has also been one of the reasons behind the drastic change of
technology in the surveying field. EDMD shifted the surveying technology from
optical mechanical devices to digital electronic devices. In spite of just being
distance measuring equipment, total station can also be used for leveling when
adjusted in a horizontal plane. Most of the ultra-modern surveying devices are a
combination of one or more of these devices.
There is a long list of surveying equipment available in the market today. The
selection of particular equipment depends on the type of application and accuracy
required. Though all these equipment provide a wide range of options to surveyors,
it is advisable to have a thorough knowledge of both, the equipment and the desired survey. This would not
only help in bringing accuracy to the work but would also save considerable time and money.

surveying equipments-old

urveying Equipments - Old
In ancient times surveying equipment included chains, compass, solar compass, transit, theodolite and more.
Chains with equal size links were used to measure distance between two required points. A compass was
used to measure the direction of a line that was being surveyed. A solar compass was used for measuring
both the direction and latitude of a particular point with the help of sun and stars. A Solar Compass could
also measure horizontal angles and the “true north” of a particular place. A metallic measuring tape was
used to measure shorter distances.
As technology gradually advanced with time, instruments used for surveying also improved. Horizontal and
vertical angles were measured using a simple theodolite whereas different heights were measured by a basic
level. Measuring wheels were also initially used by surveyors to measure long distances in a short duration of
time. Measuring wheels came in two types: mechanical and electrical, and both worked on the same principle
of rolling the wheel from the start to the end point.
In the early 1900s, surveyors started to use surveying equipment such as planimeters, theodolites, automatic
levels and measuring wheels. A planimeter is the best known tool for measuring asymmetrical land areas as
they eliminate the need for charts or manual calculations; whereas a theodolite allows measuring of
horizontal and vertical angles. A theodolite consists of a movable telescope attached over perpendicular axis.
It provides precise measurement of angles and is an integral part of every surveying tool kit. A transit is a
type of theodolite but has less precision.
An auto level or a dumpy level is also a type of surveying equipment used for measuring horizontal levels. It
consists of a telescope like device fitted on a tripod stand. Auto level, tilting level, and self-leveling level are
all types of leveling instruments, each providing different rotating capabilities.
Most surveying instruments are fixed on a tripod, which acts as a support. As the name suggests, tripods
have three legs with length varying capability. Many of these equipments are still used by surveyors around
the

AAC block

AAC Blocks also known as autoclaved cellular concrete ( ACC ) or autoclaved lightweight concrete ( ALC ), was
invented in the mid-1920s by the Swedish architect and inventor Johan Axel Eriksson. It is a lightweight, precast
building material that simultaneously provides structure, insulation, and fire and mold resistance. AAC products
include AAC blocks , AAC U Blocks AAC wall panels , AAC floor and roof panels , and AAC lintels .
AAC Blocks ( Autoclaved Aerated Concrete - " AAC ") a unique and excellent type of building materials due to its
super heat, fire and sound resistance, AAC blocks is lightweight and offers ultimate workability, flexibility and
durability. Its main ingredients include sand, water, quicklime, cement and gypsum. The chemical reaction due to
the aluminum paste provides AAC its distinct porous structure, lightness, and insulation properties, completely
different compared to other lightweight concrete materials.
Aerated Concrete Blocks - AAC is produced from the common materials lime,
sand, cement and water, and a small amount of rising agent. After mixing and
molding, it is then autoclaved under heat and pressure to create its unique
properties. AAC has excellent thermal insulation and acoustic absorption
properties. AAC is fire and pest resistant, and is economically and
environmentally superior to the more traditional structural building materials
such as concrete , wood, brick and stone.
AAC BLOCKS begins as a slurry mix of lime, sand, cement and water, and a small amount of rising agent.
For reinforced panels , a welded steel cage element is placed into the molds prior to pouring in the slurry.
Once the slurry is poured in, the mixture begins to foam and rise up completely around the reinforcing cage.
Once the rising process is complete the cage and the AAC are completely integrated and ready to be placed into
the autoclave for the curing process.

CLC block

CLC is called as Cellular Light Weight Concrete and it is also called as Foam Concrete. Cellular Light Weight Concrete (CLC)
is a version of light weight concrete that is produced like normal concrete under ambient conditions. CLC Blocks are a
cement-bonded material made by blending slurry of cement. Stable, pre-formed foam manufactured on site is injected into
this slurry to form foam concrete. Fresh foam concrete looks like a milk- shake and the volume of slurry in the foam dictates
the cast density of the foam concrete.
Are you worried about rising construction costs of projects ?
If yes, then CLC blocks is your answer. CLC blocks are a cement-bonded material made by blending slurry of cement. Stable,
pre-formed foam manufactured on site is injected into this slurry to form foam concert. Fresh foam concrete looks like a
milk-shake and the volume of slurry in the foam dictates the cast density of the foam concrete.
Why should a CLC Block Plant Be setup ?
Advantages
Applications
Raw Material
Procedure of Making CLC
Aqueous foam is produced from the foam generators (IFG) and injected into slurry of cement, fly ash and water in foam
concrete mixture (IFM). It creates many small air cells which are uniformly distributed throughout the concrete and create
cellular from 300kg/m3 to 1800kg/m3 with compressive strength between 5kg/cm2 to 200kg/cm2. The volume of air cells
in foam concrete determines the density and strength. The final mixture is then used for different applications without any
vibration or compaction. Fly ash which is a waste-product at thermal power stations. The foam concrete is thus a green
building material.
Comparison between CLC blocks and bricks
Parameters CLC Blocks Burnt Clay Bricks
Basic raw materials Cement, fly ash, water and foam Top agricultural soil, primary energy
input
Dry density kg/m3 600/800 1900
Ageing Gains strength with age (Like
conventional concrete)
No
Sound insulation Superior Normal
Eco friendliness - Pollution free
- No primary energy consumption
- Consumes fly ash (an hazardous
industrial waste material)
- Creates smoke
- high energy consumption
- wastes agricultural land
- soil erosion
- banned in more and more
countries
Thermal Insulation High thermal insulation Normal thermal insulation
Compressive strength Compressive strength is more than
other bricks.
Compressive strength is less
Water absorption capacity CLC is a light weight block where
water absorption is less as
compared to redbrick and fly-ash
brick
Redbricks and fly-ash brick absorb
more water than CLC blocks
CLC Block sizes
Size in MM No of Block in one m3
600 x 200 x 100mm 83
600 x 200 x 150mm 55
600 x 200 x 200mm 41
600 x 200 x 250mm 33
Comparison between CLC Blocks and AAC Blocks
Parameters CLC Blocks AAC Blocks
Basic raw materials Cement, fly ash, water and foam Cement, lime, specially grinded sand,
aeration compound, high primary
energy input
Production process and set-up Using ribbon mixer and foam
generator
Produced only in well established
plant, equipped with steam boiler
and high pressure auto-claves
Dry density kg/m³ 600/ 800 400/ 700
Compressive Strength kg/cm2 30- 40 20- 40
Usage Thermal insulation , partitions, non-
load bearing blocks
Non-load bearing panels and blocks
Aging Gains strength with age (like
conventional concrete)
No aging Loses strength, if not
protected against humidity
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.09 – 0.12 (depending on density) 0.09-0.15 (depending on density)
Eco friendliness - Pollution free
- No primary energy consumption
- Consumes fly ash (an hazardous
industrial waste material)
- Pollution free
- High energy consumption